MALE LABOR SUPPLY WITH HETEROGENEOUS JOBS
The result that female labor supply is more responsive has been explained by reference to the so-called Le Chatelier principle, which basically states that individuals with more options have more elastic supply functions. Suppose that women have more alternatives to devote their time to (notably, in addition to work and leisure, also home work including child care) than men. If the wage rate increases then women substitute time away from both leisure and home work, resulting in a larger labor supply response than for men.
Along these lines one can also explain the lower level of labor force participation among women. One of the factors affecting lower level of labor force participation could be heterogeneous job.
What is Heterogeneous job
Heterogeneous job is a job that involves multiple items having a large number of structural variations.
In the paper we shall discuss the following
Woman employment all over the world
Woman employment in different types of work
Factors that affect a person employed
Factors that affect women employment
Woman labor is present in every field of world. Not a single field is left by this gender of nature. Today a woman can handle a variety range of services. While a housewife, a mother being a manager of her home, a lady president can handle management of a nation. A woman can become a pilot, work in military and police, doctor, engineer, nurse, work in entertainment and media and almost every field where a man can work.
The most challenging work which a woman can take and she has the monopoly in this field is the work of a surrogate mother. This is the field where a man cannot enter at least till there is any concrete invention of method of becoming surrogate father. In short woman has performed a wide range of jobs.
In current century number of heterogeneous jobs are available throughout the world for woman. Let us study a data provided by OECD Employment Outlook how woman are employed in the different countries.
Table 2.1 shows data of aggregate labor supply all over the world in the form of percentage to total population the working age group.
It can be seen that from the year 1998 to 2008 the employment opportunities have constantly increased all the over the world, highest being Iceland amongst all countries.
However we can also see that woman labor supply is lesser than man in almost all the countries. Where employment to men is around 60 to 80 of total population in same age group, woman employment is between 28 to 60 of total population in same age group. Only Iceland is the exceptional case in the entire series.
Table 2.1 Aggregate Labor Supplies
Total of working age populationWomen of female population (15-64)199820072008199820072008Australia67.9
72.8
73.2
59.6
66.1
66.7
Austria67.8
71.4
72.1
58.5
64.4
65.8
Belgium57.3
61.6
62.0
47.5
54.9
55.7
Canada68.9
73.6
73.7
63.5
70.1
70.1
Czech Republic67.5
66.1
66.6
58.7
57.3
57.6
Denmark75.3
77.3
78.4
70.3
73.3
74.4
Finland64.8
70.5
71.9
61.3
68.5
69.0
France59.4
64.0
64.6
52.4
59.4
60.1
Germany64.7
69.0
70.2
56.3
63.2
64.3
Greece55.6
61.5
62.2
40.3
48.1
49.0
Hungary53.6
57.3
56.7
47.3
50.9
50.6
Iceland82.2
85.7
84.2
78.3
81.7
80.3
Ireland59.6
69.0
68.1
48.2
60.3
60.5
Italy52.2
58.7
58.7
37.3
46.6
47.2
Japan69.5
70.7
70.7
57.2
59.5
59.7
Korea59.2
63.9
63.8
47.3
53.2
53.2
Luxembourg60.2
63.6
64.4
45.6
54.5
55.8
Mexico60.4
61.1
59.9
39.3
43.6
41.4
Netherlands69.5
74.8
76.1
59.1
68.5
70.2
New Zealand69.6
75.4
74.9
62.1
69.0
69.0
Norway78.3
76.9
78.1
73.6
74.0
75.4
Poland58.9
57.0
59.2
52.2
50.6
52.4
Portugal66.8
67.8
68.2
58.3
61.9
62.5
Slovak Republic60.5
60.7
62.3
53.5
53.0
54.6
Spain52.4
66.6
65.3
36.5
55.5
55.7
Sweden71.5
75.7
75.7
69.4
73.2
73.2
Switzerland78.0
78.6
79.5
68.8
71.6
73.5
Turkey51.4
44.6
44.9
28.5
22.8
23.5
United Kingdom71.0
72.3
72.7
64.2
66.3
66.9
United States73.8
71.8
70.9
67.4
65.9
65.5
OECD-Total65.1
66.6
66.5
54.4
57.5
57.5
Last updated 2 October 2009
Note unweighted average.
Source OECD Employment Outlook.
For further study how different job areas affect woman employment let us analyze the table 3.1.
A range of statistics from the 2002 Labor Force Survey reveal key trends in female employment. Comparisons are made over five and ten years and, where relevant longer time periods.
Table 3.1 Trends in female employment 2002- By Melanie Duffield, Economy and Labour Market Division, Department for Work and Pensions
All PersonsWomen aged 16-59Men aged 16-64Per centAllWith ChildrenWithout ChildrenFull-timePart-timeWomen as a proportion of all in employmentMajorsub-major occupation groupAll in employment10010010010010010010044Managers and senior officials14 109111541831Corporate managers11 7781121429Managersproprietors in agriculture and services3
32341338Professional occupations121111101461240Science and technology professionals311120514Health professionals111111146Teaching and research professionals467684364Business and public service professionals322231335Associate professional and technical occupations1414141417101445Science and technology associate professionals211110322Health and social welfare associate professionals367576182Protective service occupations10001213Culture, media and sports occupations221221237Business and public service associate professionals554672641Administrative and secretarial occupations132322232421578Administrative occupations101616161814572Secretarial and related occupations377777097Skilled trades occupations1222222208Skilled agricultural trades1000210Skilled metal and electrical trades500092Skilled construction and building trades407Textiles, printing and other skilled trades222222334Personal service occupations 71316121116285Caring personal service occupations511139913191Leisure and other personal service occupations232323166Sales and customer service occupations8121112719468Sales occupations710910517468Customer service occupations122222168Process, plant and machine operatives8323421315Process, plant and machine operatives432331625Transport and mobile machine drivers and operatives40000074Elementary occupations121213126211245Elementary trades, plan and storage related occupations4111111517Elementary administration and service occupations811110420658No answerdoes not apply000034
Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.
Note these data have not been reweighed to post-2001 Census interim revised population estimates.
Men were less likely to work in services than women (67 per cent of whom worked in the service sector), with the largest differences being in public services (administration, education and health) where only 14 per cent of men were employed. In contrast, nearly one in five mens jobs were in the manufacturing sector.
The number of jobs filled by women increased by 890,000 over the five years to March 2002. Growth in the number of womens workforce jobs since 1997 accounted for two-thirds of the total increase in womens jobs between 1992 and 2002. Since 1997 the number of womens jobs in manufacturing has fallen by 225,000, easily offset by an increase of 1.1 million in the number of service jobs occupied by women. There were 580,000 more women in jobs in finance and business services and 660,000 more women in jobs in public administration, education and health than there were in 1992. Over half the net loss of manufacturing jobs over the past ten years has been in womens jobs, as have over half the jobs gained in distribution, transport and communications.
Occupations Traditional areas of female employment, such as secretarial and administrative occupations and caring occupations remain predominated by women (see Table 3.1). In spring 2002, 97 per cent of those in secretarial and related jobs and 91 per cent of those in caring personal service occupations were women. They also predominated sales and customer service occupations with 68 per cent of all in employment being women. Women showed less interest in manual occupations, in particular within skilled trades occupations and among process, plant and machine operatives. They were also underrepresented among managers and senior officials, where only 31 per cent of those employed were women.
Women with children had similar occupations to women without children. Women with children were more likely to work in personal service and elementary occupations. Women without children were more likely to work as managers and senior officials. There was a stronger relationship between hours of work and occupation. Women working part time were more likely to work in personal service occupations, sales and customer service occupations and in elementary occupations. Women working part time rather than full time were three times as likely to work in sales and customer service occupations and four times as likely to work in elementary occupations. Women working full time were four times as likely to work as managers or senior officials and twice as likely to work in professional occupations.
As seen from the above table, women have been working in those areas where they have expertise. They are not seen to be working in mens areas where jobs are seem to be tougher than woman job, e.g. Process, plant and machine operatives, elementary occupations, etc.
Women are also not seen to be working on senior position as they do not get easy promotion in senior management not because of their inefficiency to handle the position but because they are less likely to devote the time that is involved in higher positions. For such reasons even a very well knowledgeable woman remains underprivileged.
Further woman having children are also less likely to work for man dominated jobs. As womans attention is divided between family and job she is less likely to devote her time in job and hence she might remain behind the competition with men.
It cannot be concluded from the above table that woman do not want to get promoted or take higher responsibilities. In fact women have also flourished in certain high skilled jobs and have performed better than men. Today woman has not only become a doctor or an engineer but also a president of a country or a caption of an aeroplane. But these rare case women have to sacrifice their personal enjoyments. The family members of these women have to be extra ordinary supportive. This may not be possible with every woman.
The above data showed working women statistics in woman dominated as well as man dominated work. But the data did not show us the determinants that affect women employment.
Taking ahead our study of workingwoman, let us study the determinants that affect a person whether man or woman while working.
5.1 Opportunity
Employee survey studies show that employees are more satisfied when they have challenging opportunities at work. This includes chances to participate in interesting projects, jobs with a satisfying degree of challenge, and opportunities for increased responsibility. Important this is not simply promotional opportunity. As organizations have become flatter, promotions can be rare. People have found challenge through projects, team leadership, special assignments - as well as promotions.
5.2 Stress
When negative stress is continuously high, job satisfaction is low. Jobs are more stressful if they interfere with employees personal lives or are a continuing source of worry or concern.
5.3 Leadership
Data from employee satisfaction surveys has shown employees are more satisfied when their managers are good leaders. This includes motivating employees to do a good job, striving for excellence, or just taking action.
5.4 Work Standards
Employees are more satisfied when their entire workgroup takes pride in the quality of its work.
5.5 Fair Rewards
Employees are more satisfied when they feel they are rewarded fairly for the work they do. Consider employee responsibilities, the effort they have put forth, the work they have done well, and the demands of their jobs.
5.6 Adequate Authority
Employees are more satisfied when they have adequate freedom and authority to do their jobs.
With above-mentioned factors a person can be willing to work or not to work or change hisher job based on the personal satisfaction.
Conclusion
In addition to the above factors, there are further more factors that affect working power of woman. The most common factor is the housework and managing the house. If the woman handles the house singly without any help from her husband or male members of the family then she will find it difficult to go out for paid jobs.
If a woman has to work in such an environment where both man and woman are hired, then there are certain factors, which discourage a woman to work with man. For instance there are jobs involving late hours seating, work during official holiday, etc. could be comfortable for a male employee while a woman may find it very difficult to adjust beyond a particular time of job.
Further the cases of sexual harassments at workplace may also exist where man and woman both have to work at same location. Many laws and acts have been formed for the protection of woman but ultimatly this factor discourages a woman for working with men.
In spite of different roles played by a woman in variety of jobs with full sincerity and intelligence, it is sad that woman employees are under estimated.